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Racial dispari-)Tj T* 0 Tc [(t)6(i)6(e)6(s)-315(persist in child health outcomes, educational attainment,)]TJ T* -0.012 Tc (and levels of family pover)Tj 10.48279 0 TD 0 Tw (ty)Tj 0.64489 0 TD 0.029 Tw (. Measures of educational achieve)Tj 13.83985 0 TD 0 Tc (-)Tj -24.96753 -1.3889 TD [(m)12(e)12(n)12(t)-309(show that disparities across different populations may)]TJ 0 -1.38889 TD (be narrowing, but persistent gaps remain. F)Tj 18.09457 0 TD (actors contribut-)Tj -18.09457 -1.38889 TD -0.006 Tc (ing to this disparity and solutions to address it are often hotly)Tj T* 0 Tc (debated. 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One argument is that racial differ)Tj 23.83069 0.00001 TD (-)Tj -23.83069 -1.3889 TD (ences in intelligence can be attributed to genetic)Tj 0 -1.38889 TD 0 Tw (differences.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 4.5 0 0 4.5 111.1792 224.3972 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (3 )Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 115.2469 220.8347 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.029 Tw [(Increasingly)41(, this view has been challenged by)]TJ -5.20329 -1.38889 TD (scholars, such as Case W)Tj 10.4949 0 TD (estern Reserve University\325s Dr)Tj 12.36432 0.00001 TD (.)Tj -22.85922 -1.38891 TD [(Joseph F)20(agan, who argue that differences in IQ scores can)]TJ 0 -1.38889 TD (be explained by environmental factors. F)Tj 16.92112 0.00001 TD (or example, IQ test)Tj 7.96284 0.00001 TD (-)Tj -24.88396 -1.3889 TD (ing has conventionally been based on a theory that defines)Tj 0 -1.38889 TD (intelligence as how much a person knows relative to peers)Tj T* [(of the same age. Dr)41(. F)19(agan\325s research has led him to)]TJ 27.19816 43.44444 TD (advance a theory that defines intelligence as processing, in)Tj 0 -1.3889 TD [(which intelligence is measured by per)-21(formance on elemen-)]TJ 0 -1.38889 TD [(tary cognitive tasks. T)103(o conceive of intelligence as processing)]TJ T* (instead of as knowledge has the potential to reach popula-)Tj T* (tions not normally able to take IQ tests, such as infants or)Tj T* (children with special needs, and also to resolve the debate)Tj T* (over racial differences in IQ scores. )Tj 0 -2.27778 TD (Standard measures of IQ assume that all people have the)Tj 0 -1.38889 TD (same access to culturally valued information. However)Tj 22.70088 0 TD (, this)Tj -22.70088 -1.3889 TD [(is not necessarily the case. T)103(est scores are influenced by the)]TJ 0 -1.38889 TD [(environment in which a child g)-21(rows up and the exposure to,)]TJ T* [(and quality of)41(, educational experiences in which they par)-21(tici)-1(-)]TJ T* (pate. F)Tj 2.7796 0 TD (ocusing on environmental factors as the cause of dis-)Tj -2.7796 -1.38889 TD (parities in IQ requires a shift in attention to the social and)Tj T* [(cultural conditions that lead to differential oppor)-21(tunities for)]TJ T* (knowledge acquisition. )Tj 0 -2.27778 TD (Racial disparities in test scores may have significant implica)Tj 24.65007 0 TD (-)Tj -24.65007 -1.38889 TD [(tions for a student\325s educational trajectory)41(. Minority students)]TJ T* (are significantly more likely to be identified as having a cog-)Tj T* [(nitive delay)41(, emotional disturbance, or another learning dis-)]TJ T* [(ability)41(. F)19(ur)-21(thermore, evidence suggests that the processes of)]TJ T* (identifying students for testing and assessment, as well as)Tj T* (the interpretation of results may be largely subjective.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 4.5 0 0 4.5 514.2097 249.3972 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (4)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 313.2007 233.3347 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.029 Tw (Differences in educational achievement have been strongly)Tj 0 -1.38889 TD (associated with disparities in a variety of educational and)Tj T* (economic outcomes. W)Tj 9.87401 0 TD (hile test score disparities may not)Tj -9.87401 -1.3889 TD (directly cause gaps in educational attainment or later)Tj 0 -1.38889 TD (employment and earnings, they do reflect a set of circum)Tj 24.0819 0.00001 TD (-)Tj -24.0819 -1.38889 TD (stances that may be responsible for disparities in both the)Tj T* [(educational system and economy)41(.)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F4 1 Tf 9.5 0 0 9.5 36.9173 671.8868 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.026 Tw [(Policy Brief 10 | Mar)40(ch 2008)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F5 1 Tf 9.5 0 0 9.5 396.3206 671.8868 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.026 Tw [(A Series of Resear)20(ch and Policy Publications of)]TJ 3.32681 -1.26316 TD (The Schubert Center for Child Studies)Tj 4.11657 -1.26316 TD (College of Arts and Sciences)Tj -1.78021 -1.26316 TD [(Case W)85(ester)-12(n Reser)-10(ve University)]TJ /F6 1 Tf 1 0 0 1 -1000 1792 Tm 1 g -0.259 Tc 0 Tw ( )Tj /F7 1 Tf ( )Tj /F8 1 Tf -0.292 Tc ( )Tj /F9 1 Tf -0.25 Tc ( )Tj /F10 1 Tf -0.113 Tc ( )Tj /F11 1 Tf -0.292 Tc ( )Tj /F12 1 Tf ( )Tj /F13 1 Tf -0.287 Tc ( )Tj /F14 1 Tf -0.25 Tc ( )Tj /F15 1 Tf -0.287 Tc ( )Tj /F16 1 Tf 0 Tc ( )Tj ET Q endstream endobj 12 0 obj << /Width 1702 /ColorSpace/DeviceCMYK /Filter/DCTDecode /Subtype/Image /Height 101 /Type/XObject /Length 17876 /BitsPerComponent 8 >> stream JFIFAdobeeC  $, !$4.763.22:ASF:=N>22HbINVX]^]8EfmeZlS[]YC**Y;2;YYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYYe"" }!1AQa"q2#BR$3br %&'()*456789:CDEFGHIJSTUVWXYZcdefghijstuvwxyz w!1AQaq"2B #3Rbr $4%&'()*56789:CDEFGHIJSTUVWXYZcdefghijstuvwxyz?FsBL)HRrh֎JQAsȣ@Z6.Vh3H:EҊ1E.} zQHW=;{ ixP4c4g=s@ dLԜӅ%~ޗ"E*;Ri7\RblQWF }9'm)HO/YLaM>k&Z'$Fm)ڧLrxiI!l[Lri{TGsIIPq y=ޔGsKJ(l#8JjZ(A{lԪ/A4<>phJӇΆ2[OL^F):RQKI2tɥ!}h(QGz3='փ4F(+ӞmHizQIKLbG9H.HSM41jc-H)iPzRn)QA@9sFh4bqA}99p>Mz(4=iNs@RʰxNS84ޜ:2)LQ@֝y)r(\ZdjB? 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F)20(or sayings that required)]TJ 0 -1.55555 TD (only general knowledge, W)Tj 11.25522 0.00001 TD (hite students scored)Tj -11.25522 -1.55556 TD (7)Tj 0.54198 0.00001 TD (2% while African American students scored 80%)Tj -0.54198 -1.55557 TD [(correct. T)20(he authors also showed that individual dif-)]TJ 0 -1.55556 TD (ferences in specific comprehension were significant-)Tj T* (ly related to individual differences in general com-)Tj T* (prehension, demonstrating that the two constructs)Tj 0 -1.55555 TD (are related.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 9.5 0 0 9.5 274.5009 565.3284 Tm /CS0 cs 1 scn 0.029 Tw [(T)82(est Bias in Measures of Intelligence)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 274.5009 551.3284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.029 Tw [(Drs. F)20(agan and Holland also found evidence for test)]TJ 0 -1.55555 TD (bias in the assessment of understanding sayings,)Tj 0 -1.55556 TD [(analog)-21(ies, and similarities based on specific infor-)]TJ T* [(mation. T)20(his was tested by comparing two samples)]TJ T* [(of W)20(hite and African American students with equiv-)]TJ T* [(alent scores on the tests of sayings, analog)-21(ies and)]TJ T* (similarities based on specific knowledge. Although)Tj T* [(these g)-21(roups had the same score on measures of)]TJ T* (specific knowledge, the African American students)Tj 0 -1.55555 TD (had significantly higher scores than W)Tj 15.73292 0 TD (hite students)Tj -15.73292 -1.55556 TD (on the measures of general knowledge. T)Tj 17.42956 0 TD (his indi-)Tj -17.42956 -1.55556 TD (cates that the test for specific knowledge is biased)Tj 0 -1.55555 TD (against African American students and provides evi)Tj 21.24095 0 TD (-)Tj -21.24095 -1.55556 TD (dence for bias in intelligence tests based on knowl)Tj 21.21807 0 TD (-)Tj -21.21807 -1.55556 TD (edge of sayings, analog)Tj 9.77504 0 TD (ies and similarities. )Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 9.5 0 0 9.5 274.5009 327.3284 Tm /CS0 cs 1 scn 0.029 Tw (Evidence against Genetic Explanations for)Tj 0 -1.47369 TD (Differences in IQ Scores)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 274.5009 299.3283 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.029 Tw [(An impor)-21(tant theoretical and practical finding of this)]TJ 0 -1.55555 TD (work is that racial differences in IQ scores should)Tj T* (not be attributed to genetic differences between)Tj T* [(races. T)20(he research results suppor)-21(t the hypothesis)]TJ T* (that traditional IQ tests measure both intellectual)Tj 0 -1.55556 TD (ability and exposure to socially valued information.)Tj T* [(T)20(he findings fur)-21(ther suggest that the use of stan-)]TJ T* (dard IQ testing may lead to the misclassification of)Tj T* (individuals as deficient in intelligence when in fact)Tj 0 -1.55555 TD [(they have had less exposure to socially leg)-21(itimated)]TJ T* (information. T)Tj 5.676 0.00001 TD (o counteract this, Dr)Tj 8.42573 0 TD (. F)Tj 0.96692 0.00001 TD (agan proposes)Tj -15.06865 -1.55558 TD (considering traditional IQ scores as a measure of)Tj 0 -1.55555 TD (knowledge of culturally sanctioned information and)Tj 0 -1.55556 TD (considering tests of intelligence as processing as)Tj T* [(measures of intelligence per se. Dr)41(. F)19(agan\325s work)]TJ 0 -1.55555 TD (makes a compelling case for racial equality in intelli-)Tj T* (gence and for the reconsideration of the ways in)Tj 0 -1.55556 TD (which intelligence is assessed.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F5 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 404.2727 749.7799 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.01 Tc 0.026 Tw (schubert center for child studies)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F4 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 516.4153 749.7799 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (|)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F19 1 Tf 8 0 0 8 523.8054 749.7799 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.05 Tc 0.025 Tw (policy brief 10)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F18 1 Tf 0 7 -7 0 584.3327 54.9173 Tm /CS0 cs 0.6 scn 0.1147 Tc (F)Tj 0.62267 0 TD (O)Tj 0.90267 0 TD (C)Tj 0.78567 0 TD (U)Tj 0.83667 0 TD (S)Tj 0.67067 0 TD 0.0287 Tw ( )Tj 0.43035 0 TD (O)Tj 0.90267 0 TD (N)Tj 0.89767 0 TD ( )Tj 0.43035 0 TD (R)Tj 0.72567 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (S)Tj 0.67067 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (A)Tj 0.78167 0 TD (R)Tj 0.72567 0 TD (C)Tj 0.78567 0 TD (H)Tj 0.85567 0 TD ( )Tj 0.43035 0 TD (A)Tj 0.72692 0 TD (T)Tj 0.70767 0 TD ( )Tj 0.43035 0 TD (C)Tj 0.78566 0 TD (A)Tj 0.78167 0 TD (S)Tj 0.67067 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD ( )Tj 0.43035 0 TD (W)Tj 1.10967 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (S)Tj 0.67067 0 TD (T)Tj 0.70767 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (R)Tj 0.72566 0 TD (N)Tj 0.89766 0 TD ( )Tj 0.43035 0 TD (R)Tj 0.72566 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (S)Tj 0.67067 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (R)Tj 0.70805 0 TD (V)Tj 0.77168 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD ( )Tj 0.43036 0 TD (U)Tj 0.83667 0 TD (N)Tj 0.89767 0 TD (I)Tj 0.42167 0 TD (V)Tj 0.77168 0 TD (E)Tj 0.65667 0 TD (R)Tj 0.72568 0 TD (S)Tj 0.67067 0 TD (I)Tj 0.42167 0 TD (T)Tj 0.70767 0 TD (Y)Tj ET Q endstream endobj 17 0 obj << /Width 526 /ColorSpace/DeviceCMYK /Filter/FlateDecode /Subtype/Image /Height 84 /Type/XObject /Length 22075 /BitsPerComponent 8 >> stream Xw|\y&zS0L F 6{H"bꍒ(H{dS|7Ǝz&m7N6}̙9s0`RyOӿ~d&U8 0`L<  0` `   0`U UXVse%B|Z+raV[ ,2kg?^߽)<6^:޽}O#~ğaO$  0`7H>ɰ?%;oo0`:~|1xU}Na |qxjo0` ` H00x 0`z Q 0`*M?y%x1x 0` Pia7#okU.YXzd2-w@uwz{SbGgd-ZzM#OO>t`#{;n^ضƧ}>Z+2WO?~d[={Q_xroM+tia{ݳA_. _ -_cFag6y9) a E(>m`)>g!ҩ.'h>3Vհ-"!3*j˲Գ6"&1J#.V-a 62_^tĈgnޑ^'xlj[_t7TY+ jmݭ=/b~nAzE{]2` #o~yg+I"~_msN-f-/t:'UG,g9,[PgR`A4h~a['ݢP6 Q ՜fiz2nHzkQ)6` o_-Amo|0BҢ-f-მQŀ/p|;,7W7 X1[ھrcpj͠NHpTy@K] ]=.ŊbpHgS >Osҥh% ҹ ;']e. o+*_?> 1 _9"KA~;U /-_ԐWJ %J잨S2>u bs^| ~sYbrހvw}pd2`0@mw.DLdu3lox I7Iw%1 &[K/zD:C*(邎!:4-RȬ /Wij0-ϲ^t x׾ѥ.:4` xCIx{趀b1,5fl L/9lኢ5s-X}8 6%'_Q$ ^:4Jk6s).+K9caezєtĈ. g DS O y9݋JVil[;  ?1;g}O2K7~ɀ0[c6r5]/Ju97١Zb&Re5-ee[H_nm, cv`Es 5OB~Kӓ+p^>X`ڡ^&jy8jd؛lV!߽EN >Oe1qԚA7]wT?mwl)mXLbA\ڏhoe{lʝ7o r}߾?bVv%(Z=7G߲K KFvn|Sfꫬ]+xJW~SX Vme/QG]ض{vx;11~rXqhc^'&3;̯˚m,o>rj_ޱ~pSy5 Fr)"/zcݳc>O\?M+i~sw=큋'giTcK7NLEaW7:] wu;f/5rmKwPu]J_>5=(iCw^_inj{1SGؘϑ]n9zЖlPwZ =NSN伙'kLww|l Nk"b)ePtDn(IiC K薜6ذf&Sܴ^M[|;>Qht5E敋 3|dۅ^9CaYℛo?o; ٔD<aP^B{kDY*y%뗪oXz%b, ԕ\"^ݓ׌_c"C-+5P=}P9}i[u!c^@\kO/!)<'13Gϰ[s)yãur e<=8D>=Hqp0`e-o෮U WU0KTN@ O N]R=ok%{"|tmW o?EIso!K9|]8}0C3: u%Xu~Y[o§!"3:{SyOSxǢ;$}JNMk o<6$!? 6.ͨB?b|D/ Pw`  Oc\R;#v1&y|4t-JݨKrK{y- YTZ;O鐃 B -%ESR ]h/RO3ձ$.xs ig xl54v ;*$;W0[ހ9eyCA{)nI*jA:I8DRjOMbRq iw|Z4 hTW`LjӥZ V% =F ArjZL Djt)#nc1MϩnI+;)~逸ʓƐsnU1k[Fcv MtCO=T&# _FF3_8/k(@S9a4VECL?pH[ta34~p?tkX4d5)z t6=o -2 3-ggMbiUDtK]J .'jStFvJWN E/Yy7t5TYe{Bp:ѕ[ΛSgmO2o{?fJCM9 }H>. 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Several studies have)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD (examined whether providing poor children with high quality pre-)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD (schooling early in life had the potential to raise their IQs.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 4.5 0 0 4.5 249.7556 600.4908 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.124 Tc [(7,)-124(8)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 258.2689 596.9283 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (Results)Tj -24.59462 -1.44445 TD 0.029 Tw [(showed that par)-21(ticipation in preschool did result in a significant)]TJ 0 -1.44444 TD [(increase in IQ scores. Most impor)-21(tantly)41(, interventions seem to pro-)]TJ 0 -1.44445 TD [(duce small but lasting effects on IQ scores among children. W)20(hen)]TJ T* (we think of IQ as a measure of both a child\325s ability to process infor-)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD [(mation and the information which the child has been g)-21(iven to)]TJ 0 -1.44445 TD (process, it makes sense that educational intervention leads to an)Tj T* (increase in IQ. )Tj 0 -2.33334 TD (Research such as this suggests that there is an imperative to provide)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD (children with appropriate information. Providing information as soon)Tj T* (as possible, as often as possible, as long as possible, and as clearly)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD (as possible will lead to more knowledge. More knowledge is reflect-)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD [(ed in a higher IQ score. IQ scores suffer when there is delay)41(, disrup-)]TJ 0 -1.44445 TD (tion, or disorder in providing information to children. However)Tj 25.80312 0 TD (, less)Tj -25.80312 -1.44445 TD (knowledge caused by a lack of access to information does not mean)Tj T* (that a child is unable to process information. )Tj 0 -2.33333 TD (If we define intelligence as information processing and the IQ score)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD (as knowledge, the possibility of culture-fair tests of intelligence based)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD (on estimates of information processing arises. A practical application)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD (of this research is that it may be possible to develop culture-fair tests)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD (of intelligence that will allow basic intellectual abilities to be recog-)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD (nized. Evidence that existing tests of knowledge may be biased)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD [(against cer)-21(tain g)-21(roups suggests that alternative measures are neces-)]TJ T* [(sary)41(. Additionally)40(, the inequality of educational achievement among)]TJ 0 -1.44444 TD (races in our country highlights a need for culture-fair tests of intelli-)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD (gence. Disparities exist not only in scores on IQ tests but on other)Tj T* (tests of knowledge as well such as the SA)Tj 17.48893 -0.00001 TD (T)Tj 0.41819 -0.00001 TD [(, the GR)-21(E, and the A)20(CT)81(.)]TJ -17.90712 -1.44443 TD [(T)20(hese disparities influence educational decisions made on behalf of)]TJ 0 -1.44445 TD (the child throughout their educational careers. At young ages, African )Tj 30.89808 49.44444 TD (American students are more likely to be identified as having a cogni-)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD [(tive delay or learning disability)41(. At older ages, basing admission to)]TJ 0 -1.44445 TD -0.02 Tc (higher education on such test scores results in fewer African American)Tj T* 0 Tc [(students being elig)-21(ible for or admitted to colleges and universities.)]TJ 0 -2.33333 TD [(Dr)41(. F)19(agan has created tests of intelligence as processing which can)]TJ 0 -1.44444 TD [(be used as early as infancy to identify cognitive streng)-21(ths and weak-)]TJ 0 -1.44445 TD [(nesses. T)20(hese early tests, which make use of visual memory)40(, are)]TJ T* (predictive of IQ scores later in childhood, and provide evidence for)Tj 0 -1.44444 TD (early intervention for children who fall at either end of the cognitive)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD [(spectrum. W)20(hile intelligence testing for very young children is some-)]TJ T* (what controversial, there is evidence to suggest that some deficits)Tj T* [(can be overcome if identified early and addressed appropriately)41(.)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 4.5 0 0 4.5 556.6058 514.4909 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (7)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F1 1 Tf 9 0 0 9 315 489.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k 0.029 Tw [(P)20(erhaps one of the most impor)-21(tant implications of this work is the)]TJ 0 -1.44444 TD (evidence it presents to counter the idea that racial differences in IQ)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD [(are based on genetic differences in intelligence. Instead, Dr)41(. F)19(agan\325s)]TJ 0 -1.44444 TD (theory of intelligence as processing provides policymakers and prac-)Tj 0 -1.44445 TD (titioners with oppor)Tj 8.12309 0 TD (tunities to address the achievement gap through)Tj -8.12309 -1.44445 TD (the use of early interventions, culture fair testing and a new perspec-)Tj T* (tive on what constitutes intelligence.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 3.5 0 0 3.5 315 379.7097 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (1)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 319.5 376.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.018 Tc -0.023 Tw [(Nisbett, R.E. \(2)20(005\). Heredity)40(, environment, and race differences in IQ: A Commentary on)]TJ 0 -1.48148 TD 0.029 Tw [(Rushton and Jensen \(2)20(005\). )]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F20 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 404.1083 366.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.018 Tc 0.029 Tw [(Psychology)41(, Public P)19(olicy and L)20(aw)40(,)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 506.095 366.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.018 Tc 0.029 Tw [(1)41(1)-1(\()1(2)-1(\),)1( 3)19(02-3)20(1)40(0.)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 3.5 0 0 3.5 315 359.7097 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (2)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 319.5 356.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.035 Tc -0.019 Tw [(Hedges, L., & Nowell, A. \(1)41(998\). Black\320W)19(hite test score convergence since 1)41(965. In A. Phillips)]TJ 0 -1.48148 TD -0.029 Tc 0 Tw ((Ed.), )Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F20 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 335.9534 346.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.029 Tc -0.025 Tw (The Black-White test score gap)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 424.0594 346.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.029 Tc -0.025 Tw [(\(pp. 1)41(49\3201)40(8)41(1\). W)41(ashing)-21(ton, DC: Brookings Institution.)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 3.5 0 0 3.5 315 339.7097 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (3)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 319.5 336.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.018 Tc 0.029 Tw (Jensen, A. R. \(1)Tj 6.53451 0.00001 TD 0 Tw [(98)40(1\). )]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F20 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 380.8103 336.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.018 Tc 0.029 Tw (Straight talk ab)Tj 6.67157 0.00001 TD (out mental tests.)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 476.0498 336.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k -0.018 Tc 0.029 Tw (New Y)Tj 2.75569 0.00001 TD [(ork: T)20(he F)19(ree Press.)]TJ ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 3.5 0 0 3.5 315 329.7097 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (4)Tj ET Q /GS2 gs /GS1 gs q BT /F17 1 Tf 6.75 0 0 6.75 319.5 326.9284 Tm 0 0 0 1 k (T)Tj 0.46273 0 TD -0.018 Tc -0.029 Tw (he Civil Rights Project, UCL)Tj 11.33071 0.00001 TD (A. 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Milwaukee Ave. Chicago, IL 60622 USA T0323 ID#5092594 Designer: Jim Marcus/Gomiko All rights reserved.LaFigura "fJ_ O2A(yrztb O ub O2  _  TaO  endstream endobj 63 0 obj << /CapHeight 329 /FontName/YMQPBH+LaFigura /Flags 34 /ItalicAngle 0 /FontBBox[-654 -444 896 550] /XHeight 357 /FontFile3 62 0 R /Ascent 329 /StemV 13 /Descent -372 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 64 0 obj << /Widths[113] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/YMQPBH+LaFigura /Name/F10 /Encoding 61 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 63 0 R >> endobj 65 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space] >> endobj 66 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 312 /Length1 312 >> stream DKLBSF+Formata-MediumA [   n|Copyright (c) 1991 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.Formata is a trademark of H. Berthold AG.Formata MediumFormata|VSw 7 7   endstream endobj 67 0 obj << /CapHeight 706 /FontName/DKLBSF+Formata-Medium /Flags 262178 /ItalicAngle 0 /FontBBox[-127 -251 1291 967] /XHeight 798 /FontFile3 66 0 R /Ascent 782 /StemV 163 /Descent -247 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 68 0 obj << /Widths[292] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/DKLBSF+Formata-Medium /Name/F11 /Encoding 65 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 67 0 R >> endobj 69 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space] >> endobj 70 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 309 /Length1 309 >> stream WWRKED+Formata-RegularAT   n}Copyright (c) 1991 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.Formata is a trademark of H. Berthold AG.Formata RegularFormata|V\$y  Ԕ z  endstream endobj 71 0 obj << /CapHeight 706 /FontName/WWRKED+Formata-Regular /Flags 34 /ItalicAngle 0 /FontBBox[-115 -250 1285 960] /XHeight 798 /FontFile3 70 0 R /Ascent 774 /StemV 105 /Descent -241 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 72 0 obj << /Widths[292] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/WWRKED+Formata-Regular /Name/F12 /Encoding 69 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 71 0 R >> endobj 73 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space] >> endobj 74 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 310 /Length1 310 >> stream FVXTSS+StoneSans-SemiboldAG}^     y Copyright (c) 1987 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All rights reserved.Stone is a trademark of Adobe Systems Incorporated.Stone Sans SemiboldStoneSans$PhD/ endstream endobj 75 0 obj << /CapHeight 700 /FontName/FVXTSS+StoneSans-Semibold /Flags 34 /ItalicAngle 0 /FontBBox[-179 -250 1405 970] /XHeight 747 /FontFile3 74 0 R /Ascent 735 /StemV 0 /Descent -250 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 76 0 obj << /Widths[287] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/FVXTSS+StoneSans-Semibold /Name/F13 /Encoding 73 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 75 0 R >> endobj 77 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space] >> endobj 78 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 342 /Length1 342 >> stream UBPXIV+Berkeley-Italic@   $!'3Copyright (c) 1989 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.ITC Berkeley Oldstyle is a trademark of International Typeface Corporation.ITC Berkeley Oldstyle ItalicBerkeley$$u{ 7  endstream endobj 79 0 obj << /CapHeight 635 /FontName/UBPXIV+Berkeley-Italic /Flags 98 /ItalicAngle -8 /FontBBox[-130 -260 1019 839] /XHeight 712 /FontFile3 78 0 R /Ascent 705 /StemV 0 /Descent -248 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 80 0 obj << /Widths[250] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/UBPXIV+Berkeley-Italic /Name/F14 /Encoding 77 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 79 0 R >> endobj 81 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space] >> endobj 82 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 292 /Length1 292 >> stream AVYNGX+StoneSansAGW   y Copyright (c) 1987 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All rights reserved.Stone is a trademark of Adobe Systems Incorporated.Stone SansStoneSans$PhD/ endstream endobj 83 0 obj << /CapHeight 700 /FontName/AVYNGX+StoneSans /Flags 34 /ItalicAngle 0 /FontBBox[-179 -250 1297 963] /XHeight 747 /FontFile3 82 0 R /Ascent 735 /StemV 0 /Descent -250 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 84 0 obj << /Widths[287] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/AVYNGX+StoneSans /Name/F15 /Encoding 81 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 83 0 R >> endobj 85 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space] >> endobj 86 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 315 /Length1 315 >> stream LVQTBG+Formata-ItalicAVL   n|Copyright (c) 1991 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.Formata is a trademark of H. Berthold AG.Formata ItalicFormatazVb#v  љ z  yXO  endstream endobj 87 0 obj << /CapHeight 706 /FontName/LVQTBG+Formata-Italic /Flags 98 /ItalicAngle -13 /FontBBox[-194 -253 1259 952] /XHeight 798 /FontFile3 86 0 R /Ascent 788 /StemV 105 /Descent -237 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 88 0 obj << /Widths[292] /LastChar 32 /BaseFont/LVQTBG+Formata-Italic /Name/F16 /Encoding 85 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 87 0 R >> endobj 89 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space 38/ampersand 40/parenleft/parenright 44/comma/hyphen/period/slash/zero/one/two/three/four/five/six/seven/eight/nine/colon/semicolon 63/question 65/A/B/C/D/E/F/G/H/I/J/K/L/M/N/O/P/Q/R/S/T/U 87/W 89/Y 95/underscore 97/a/b/c/d/e/f/g/h/i/j/k/l/m/n/o/p/q/r/s/t/u/v/w/x/y 165/bullet 208/endash 213/quoteright] >> endobj 90 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 9869 /Length1 9869 >> stream RWAXUH+Formata-RegularAT   &\n}Copyright (c) 1991 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.Formata is a trademark of H. Berthold AG.Formata RegularFormataH%S+PTFQI'BHODGVEWMNUJZ LX*5C3&4"$)6.:t82 R,/(#Y  -o1K@0J.1%apEj& W  z s 3 $Z</R8CYP P4 Z !"""# #g#$;ʼn )6‹Ë68$ '@9$@:抡K*܋YL#jTZz_N-ѝvvwX9~6rKkaseQb4.F?XÈƋ󋷴9<^VzzzyyzĎх,Iݲ拖hVza0x\v^|r}{xylH~]_HG'QbonHH)ej%FjiыƜvHt^nT[fwvy<ŦÍËql_Hri4`Mb̲s{yWA1X$$n~w|]ln_<>孙cdÐҎ0cqʶijܲڴǁmnlRbi׮8ԋ0mT<0NB-88^/e ͱËtTtu}Hvvv w&mG^ZE/PPP%LN鉥 g/!2=[ew{u&ŊK#?7z~HMwwz‹ߊ ΋p^vtt7Lbkv^{[^n3777T1D Bm]utt WVWj?vvt䄒tI'iƍlFFNL"Q?t- Wv]`X„vCAPQ~wSv]̋xy{xpzHv`(G׸xg̊$;giM,lI4dBn;豀g߅ՀCuRrww{T'/[|nlnNMprdyl^dlYbB6C)4-ooq޳|sq]J/+ 30+ѲvvKF݂&畉kVu4΋tl~|otyYI}wmio_yV!"jHVvz]]JoQ]UxsajP&嵊o\\U{#M=6Wr݋xa܌ҍHNvvWww$QOpvW,BIaf]F,"ԋWf;ЇՋ/^X"}fkNWjyv{䯺͍8mTvwg?><d\ibjdYBgb'b(f(ZZ;=>ŎÌ$ɦwo۶ā܃(T1DvvͭɦwmǐLP$RcÈ?ƜprL1Ӵӈ»â󸿔tu:08劧኱\of-}Լ5=ŽԅpXǺ<{vYԙĊNRaԌ]}^،xxxvuvj~ukkp snWʋ$ww+wMωNY|`PgS]V4YWw{y~}~Tvvwwlb^pr{Rr9vFRDLSu~p兑XY%)'hzk}jzd|dyfФ!9+CN U[8~Toij*vww*s-☛UqmVBQGRFcX]/XMWVW'DKM%2"v`̏w?ą|||{z{ezGhhhS}Vhys}IzPk~mJ[b`M[~[IGʎь D:NȎΌJQYX{_**+VN݋T@ڎ*vvUp>>>CChh䎕`V% pŽLJ䋛ᙋH wwEϐً1*@]kx~Ä"v'BD)HM-*~onhJLwUmkSO6lѠvi}^USUkn]\ߊ.k0Z[XM}ly=z܋ۋZ>ZVTN܊'@tmY559⏯dvoGV &1SMd.4V;sΘnjۏruڂ< ۨ5gjtafYLPplwWU"\e`0][ Ypa[y{dN@xɋiyqpj{jrvajF1Tvv[p]jY$cXrX{S-dzkΆ\xY;;9\B(h\ MKKŏHvv?wwX׊5̏4~m6nmRF?\X;3:595\׌|HDڇєB~N0qop44e$[mJ>G(?[gVVqqpK;sW}kn]D's턦ЛđquH mۛ{\kT[NNivz&ˌ݋X? 3ӋI7;MC 6Zy7va-)H%z?13.t2K L\jp~~`f]Wzzyzyz"]WzzzyyzĎHN(4mh \?#h]Éhuia9IO!.UxdgkɁʋb 2KioJ?vwpfmOXU;6.C :pPF]Bvvo.kiMyʊqs{^tXoe-O#M>:AQhA\B]$23ʿ[mqƎ7T˄k\PZj`n]WZpM`ôHEK`fuڗ˜֔Ə˂cvkggbb,4$; ˿on_gvKFhq~liCayqbZpRARXHd544ԭF,AXytj`mnZQ-i|l~3g!(>̗rmgt&ew?#>\ĶسY_D[Q12XÿQEHv" .[bliHDZs\?T7ABMJy>RklkB8Pjpyw(ERngi}Юҵl~ŋa-0PZF*[؉Hvv|\ 쟬n[XIIy@{,3/ ZL|׊FwuwrqvhMCppbiHvHJ_`K O}D@]R6jnƌrFs8ӊ's$pvw2wG\{Z7YFff2zbH|lpឲޟيɑ(-YWw{y~}~Tvmqqn6?T* u$qQ*@YHvv߈w~X<Dg|tlS-'UhěA9v( x U[8}Toij6]Vzzyzyz| .  |Y|Zc )tr cASiiƄ6M)f,Q'|V\$y  Ԕ z  endstream endobj 91 0 obj << /CapHeight 706 /FontName/RWAXUH+Formata-Regular /Flags 34 /ItalicAngle 0 /FontBBox[-115 -250 1285 960] /XHeight 798 /FontFile3 90 0 R /Ascent 774 /StemV 105 /Descent -241 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 92 0 obj << /Widths[292 0 0 0 0 0 604 0 396 396 0 0 229 333 229 458 583 583 583 583 583 583 583 583 583 583 271 271 0 0 0 417 0 604 625 625 708 542 479 688 708 271 333 604 479 854 708 750 583 750 604 542 500 688 0 875 0 542 0 0 0 0 0 500 0 521 583 458 583 542 292 521 583 250 250 500 250 896 583 583 583 583 333 437 313 583 458 792 458 458 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 333 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 583 0 0 0 0 229] /LastChar 213 /BaseFont/RWAXUH+Formata-Regular /Name/F17 /Encoding 89 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 91 0 R >> endobj 93 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space 65/A 67/C 69/E/F 72/H/I 78/N/O 82/R/S/T/U/V/W 89/Y] >> endobj 94 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 1296 /Length1 1296 >> stream UPEAWQ+StoneSans-SemiboldAG}^    +y Copyright (c) 1987 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All rights reserved.Stone is a trademark of Adobe Systems Incorporated.Stone Sans SemiboldStoneSans'0$64/3&")587*:+^ad!Ul$"vz!^P P!zzz~*"*k7eX(0]](0Xe7k'W W'* &[GB,;Sb-4֢dfwY|U:3$vyw!P@S.R:EG.`0 c&-%%ujK;,?-.`T_X>ݱϳ;[uԋ2-9Zƴ汹vPPPH34$PI45v!M!tñ> endobj 96 0 obj << /Widths[287 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 667 0 671 0 542 508 0 741 307 0 0 0 0 783 788 0 0 611 556 593 722 657 995 0 630] /LastChar 89 /BaseFont/UPEAWQ+StoneSans-Semibold /Name/F18 /Encoding 93 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 95 0 R >> endobj 97 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space 48/zero/one 98/b/c 101/e/f 105/i 108/l 111/o/p 114/r 121/y] >> endobj 98 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 1607 /Length1 1607 >> stream CPDEWM+Berkeley-Italic@   %!@$Copyright (c) 1989 Adobe Systems Incorporated. All Rights Reserved.ITC Berkeley Oldstyle is a trademark of International Typeface Corporation.ITC Berkeley Oldstyle ItalicBerkeley QPMJDZCSFGDfiE'{$=h ܆OP~EmV8@y͢,tpEdrpz<{=-8v@(7G#Dkʐͥq>yhYOx(x4L !AY3 !AܤBҖ0U6iBDv'wwـH~Lz{ Mq5-gϙzet|Ě%(fdtudtgϙzet|DËq>yhYvmpknw{x iiXpZB| uzQv'4-LӬ=wwЬ'kIK.Ctx|rxvvn_v>xh[P.V(0sf0dއKpP]$OWww .~J\bh703p?=C&Im ffyhYxB`־ᨓpsy}}=$.춴{v{oa'#0!0?ԲekXfXCx#=2͓{zayJ2wBKptv4egw3~xq|{zq|@Zm*wQ}B{Pe|svLptMd|m~{5*xںtM2:F,u/Q,u@UAGN!(3DN3Ku{ 7  endstream endobj 99 0 obj << /CapHeight 635 /FontName/CPDEWM+Berkeley-Italic /Flags 98 /ItalicAngle -8 /FontBBox[-130 -260 1019 839] /XHeight 712 /FontFile3 98 0 R /Ascent 705 /StemV 81 /Descent -248 /Type/FontDescriptor /StemH 0 >> endobj 100 0 obj << /Widths[250 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 500 500 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 463 407 0 407 278 0 0 278 0 0 278 0 0 463 481 0 389 0 0 0 0 0 0 481] /LastChar 121 /BaseFont/CPDEWM+Berkeley-Italic /Name/F19 /Encoding 97 0 R /Type/Font /Subtype/Type1 /FirstChar 32 /FontDescriptor 99 0 R >> endobj 101 0 obj << /BaseEncoding/MacRomanEncoding /Type/Encoding /Differences[32/space 44/comma/hyphen/period 65/A/B 73/I 76/L 80/P 83/S/T 87/W 97/a/b/c/d/e 103/g/h/i 107/k/l/m/n/o/p 114/r/s/t/u 119/w 121/y] >> endobj 102 0 obj << /Subtype/Type1C /Length 3934 /Length1 3934 >> stream LKGFOP+Formata-ItalicAVL   5%n|Copyright (c) 1991 Adobe Systems Incorporated. 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